Specialist computer software is available for estimating the output of solar PV systems. It is recommended that this approach is used at a detailed design stage for larger commercial installations. Suppliers will often be able to assist in this respect. For domestic installations and at an early design stage for commercial sized installations, Table 2. Slight deviations from these optimums will not have a significant effect on the solar availability.
Typical overshading factors as used in the previous worked example are provided in the Table below. Designs for building-integrated PVs need to consider this from the outset in order to allow air to flow over the backs of the modules to maintain high performance. It is also likely to be necessary with all types of module to avoid unwanted heat gain into the occupied space which could cause discomfort and increase any cooling load.
Building-integrated modules can reach C above ambient in conditions of high radiation Chapter 3. It is therefore important to ensure excessive temperature is avoided as far as possible. The output is also related to the peak rating of the installation. If this is divided by the peak power of 1. Such figures are used to compare PV systems of varying characteristics, e. Another common way of assessing installations is the Performance Ratio which is briefly mentioned in section 2.
PVs respond to direct and diffuse radiation. The more sunshine, the greater the output. PV cells do not let light through but modules can be constructed so that some areas are transparent and some are opaque.
PV systems tend to be most efficient when the array experiences uniform conditions Designers can facilitate this. Modules come in various sizes and shapes. Appearance varies with the type of PV. A number of PV installations have been in operation for 15 years or more. Energy payback periods for PVs are short provided the system is installed to optimise performance.
Designers have a key influence on the following factors that affect PV output: — Tilt. For grid-connected systems the annual energy production is the key figure. Exact orientation is not critical. Shading is to be avoided wherever possible. Ventilation needs to be provided to remove heat from the modules. Renewable Energy World, 1 1 , pp. For domestic properties there is normally a part of the building, usually the roof, that lends itself to the location of PVs.
However, if the opportunity exists it is worth thinking about the building design where it can be influenced to maximise the potential of PVs wherever possible.
This is especially true where solar thermal panels are also being considered as there may be a limited amount of space suitable for mounting the panels. PVs need to be considered as an integral part of the energy strategy of the building and of its functioning. The integration of PVs with the other building elements is critical to success. Appearance and aesthetics are, as ever, especially important.
This chapter looks at the site, building type and load analysis - all factors in assessing the suitability of PVs. It then looks at the influence of PVs on the building. Because PVs are a high capital cost technology it is important to use them as optimally as possible. Reasons to use PV include: 1. Energy costs 2. Environment 3. Security of supply 4. Each project needs careful thought as the PV area required can vary enormously according to the desired objective.
Storage or stand-alone system? The location of the site is of importance generally, as one goes farther north there is less solar energy available Figure 2. Letterkenny receives less solar radiation than Cork on average over the course of a year.
The topography of the site should be studied. The local wind regime should be considered as part of the strategy for ventilating the building. The matter is complex because in the winter a microclimate with low wind speeds is to be preferred as it reduces heat loss due to infiltration.
In the summer, some wind is preferable as it can improve comfort during the day, assist night-time cooling, and depending on the design, improve PV performance by reducing the temperature of the PV panels see below.
The strategy should be to achieve the right balance. It is desirable to have a site with as little shading by hills and other geographical features as possible as this reduces the electrical output. Overshadowing by trees is to be similarly avoided wherever feasible.
Because of the way PV modules are wired, shadowing from any source can have what might seem to be a disproportionate effect. This is explained in more detail in Appendix A. The implications for the architectural design are that obstructions are to be avoided wherever possible, whether they are telephone poles, chimneys, trees, other buildings or even other parts of the array itself.
Where shading is unavoidable careful selection of components and configuration of the array can help minimise losses. In urban areas overshadowing by other buildings is common. For domestic customers, there is a tariff available for installations in the microgeneration category see section 5.
The amount of PV energy usable on site is related to the size of the array and the magnitude and pattern of the demand Chapter 4. A wide range of building types from offices to hotels to houses can use PVs. Office blocks have good PV potential because their electricity demand is significant year-round including the summer and because demand is highest between 9am and 5pm. Thus, the match between demand and PV supply is good. Residential properties, on the other hand, are more challenging because the times of required demand are more intermittent and highly dependable upon the way in which occupants use the house.
Grid connected systems work best with dwellings as the grid in effect acts as a storage device. On-site storage using battery systems is a possibility but increases capital costs and complexity thus lowering the financial attractiveness of PV systems. Commercial and industrial buildings with large roof areas available also offer significant scope for PVs. Energy consumption varies with both type and the individual building, so a design should be carried out at an early stage of the design process.
Table 3. Figure 3. The building is not air-conditioned and the load is slightly higher in winter than in summer because of the need to run additional plant such as circulation pumps for the heating system. If the site has good solar exposure and if the demand and supply pattern are reasonably matched, the design can be developed further. Note the much lower electricity consumption in August during school holidays.
A certain amount of floor area will need to be located on a particular site, access to daylight will be required in many of the spaces, costs will limit floor-to-ceiling heights, and so forth. Firstly, in construction terms, building-integrated PV systems need to play the same role as the traditional wall and roofing cladding elements they replace. However, smaller domestic installations are generally exempt from planning requirements if some simple design constraints are followed.
Energy and Buildings, 42 6 , — De Wit, S. Analysis of uncertainty in building design evaluations and its implications. Energy and Buildings, 34 , — Uncertainty in peak cooling load calculations. Energy and Buildings, 42 7 , — Accessed 16 Mar European Commission Furbringer J.
Sensitivity of models and measurements in the airflow in buildings with the aid of experimental plans. Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne.
Gokhale, S. Model-based performance analysis using block coverage measurements. Journal of Systems and Software, 82 1 , — Heiselberg, P. Application of sensitivity analysis in design of sustainable buildings. Renewable Energy, 34 9 , — Heller, J.
Sensitivity Analysis: Comparing the impact of design, operation, and tenant behavior on building energy performance. Report of the New Building Institute. Hopfe, C. Uncertainty analysis in building performance simulation for design support. Energy and Buildings, 43 10 , — International Energy Agency Energy efficiency requirements in building codes, energy efficiency policies for new buildings.
Lomas, K. Sensitivity analysis techniques for building thermal simulation programs. Energy and Buildings, 19 1 , 21— Macdonald I. Quantifying the effects of uncertainty in building simulation. University of Strathclyde. Macdonald, I. Applying uncertainty considerations to energy conservation equations. Energy and Buildings, 39 9 , — Practical application of uncertainty analysis.
Fuel and Energy Abstracts, 43 2 , Detailed risk management reports for the month-end that are used to manage and monitor risks within the portfolio. Any audit, risk, and consultant reports on prepaid programs including internal risk assessments.
Any quality assurance reports on prepaid programs completed year-to-date. List of business customers regularly conducting prepaid access transactions including the number and dollar volume of transactions. Summary descriptions a table or grid, if available for all current prepaid card products that includes distribution channels, advertising, target markets unique state laws , vendor support, third-party resellers, underwriting criterion, load limits, spending limits, cash advance limits, and pricing.
Provide a list of third-party payment processor relationships. Include the number and dollar volume of payments processed per relationship. Provide a list of SARs filed on third-party payment processor relationships. In particular, include policies, procedures, and processes related to the monitoring sales of monetary instruments in order to detect unusual activities.
Provide monetary instrument logs or other MIS reports used for the monitoring and detection of unusual or suspicious activities relating to the sales of monetary instruments.
Provide a list of noncustomer transactions over a specified period of time. Provide a list of monetary instruments purchased with currency over a specified time period. Provide a list of SARs filed related to the purchase or sale of monetary instruments. Brokered Deposits Make available copies of specific policies and procedures specifically for brokered deposits, including procedures for monitoring for suspicious activity.
Provide risk assessment covering brokered deposits. Provide internal audits covering brokered deposits. Provide a list of approved deposit brokers. Provide management reports covering nonrelationship funding programs including reports on balances, concentrations, performance, or fees paid. Provide SARs and subpoenas related to brokered deposit relationships. Provide a copy of account documentation or agreements for deposit broker arrangements.
Make available copies of policies, procedures, and processes for privately owned ATM and ISO account acceptance, due diligence, and ongoing monitoring. Provide a list of ISO clients and balances. Provide internal audits covering NDIP sales and provider relationships.
Provide a risk assessment covering NDIP customers and transactions. If available, provide a list of NDIP clients and balances. Provide a list of suspense, concentration, or omnibus accounts used for NDIP. Describe the purpose for and controls surrounding each account. Provide management reports covering 25 to 50 of the largest, most active, and most profitable NDIP customers.
Make available a copy of account opening documentation or agreements for NDIP. Provide risk assessment covering insurance products. Make available MIS reports related to the sales of insurance products.
Reports may include large transaction reports, single premium payments, early cancellation, premium overpayments, and assignments of claims. Make available a copy of contracts or agreements between the bank and insurance providers for the completion of CIP, due diligence, and ongoing monitoring of insurance customers.
Provide a list of insurance products approved for sale at the bank. Provide management reports covering insurance products including large transactions, funds transfers, single premium payments, and early cancellations. Provide SARs or subpoenas related to insurance clients.
Provide a copy of account documentation requirements and applications for insurance products. Provide a risk assessment relating to the lending function, including a list of any higher-risk lending relationships identified by the bank.
Provide a risk assessment relating to trade finance activities, including a list of any higher-risk trade finance transactions, accounts, or relationships identified by the bank. Provide a list of customers involved in transactions with higher-risk geographic locations or for whom the bank facilitates trade finance activities with higher-risk geographic locations.
Make available business or strategic plans for the private banking department. Provide the most recent version of management reports on private banking activity, such as customer aggregation reports, policy exception reports, client concentrations, customer risk classification reports, and unusual account activity. Provide a list of products and services offered to private banking clients.
Provide a description of the method for aggregating customer holdings and activities across business units throughout the organization.
Provide a description of account officer and manager positions, and the compensation, recruitment, and training program for these positions. Make available the code of ethics policy for private banking officers. Provide a risk assessment covering private banking customers and transactions. Provide a list of suspense, concentration, or omnibus accounts used for private banking transactions. Describe the purpose for each account and the controls governing it. Provide management reports covering 25 to 50 of the largest, most active, or most profitable private banking customers.
Customers who were introduced to the bank by individuals previously employed by other financial institutions. Customers who were introduced to the bank by a third-party investment adviser. Customers who use nominee names. Customers who are from, or do business with, a higher-risk geographic location.
Customers who are involved in cash-intensive businesses. Customers who were granted exceptions to policies, procedures, and controls. Customers who frequently appear on unusual activity monitoring reports. Provide SARs and subpoenas related to private banking customers. Make available a copy of account-opening documentation or agreements for private banking customers. Make available trust and asset management procedures and guidelines used to determine when EDD is appropriate for higher-risk accounts and parties to the relationship.
These should include methods for identifying account-interested parties i. Provide a risk assessment of trust and asset management services that identifies those customers, prospective customers, or products the bank has determined to be high risk. Provide management reports covering 25 to 50 of the largest, most active, or most profitable trust and asset management customers. Make workpapers available upon request. Identify the trust accounting systems used.
Provide procedures for checking section a requests relating to trust and asset management services. Provide a list of all trust and asset management accounts designated as high risk, and a list of all accounts whose assets consist of PICs and asset protection trusts.
Provide copies of SARs associated with trust and asset management services. Nonresident Aliens and Foreign Individuals Make available copies of policies, procedures, and processes specific to nonresident alien NRA accounts, including guidelines and systems for establishing and updating W-8 exempt status.
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